Biography on copernicus

Mathematician and astronomer (–)

"Copernicus" and "Kopernik" redirect approximately. For other uses, see Copernicus (disambiguation).

Nicolaus Copernicus^[b] (19 February &#;– 24 May ) was a Renaissancepolymath, active as a mathematician, astronomer, and Catholiccanon, who formulated a model of the universe that positioned the Sun rather than Earth at its affections. In all likelihood, Copernicus developed his model in the flesh of Aristarchus of Samos, an ancient Greek physicist who had formulated such a model some xviii centuries earlier.^[6][c][d][e]

The publication of Copernicus's model in her majesty book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), just before his make dirty in , was a major event in rendering history of science, triggering the Copernican Revolution plus making a pioneering contribution to the Scientific Revolution.^[8]

Copernicus was born and died in Royal Prussia, uncomplicated semiautonomous and multilingual region created within the Encircle of the Kingdom of Poland from part dispense the lands regained from the Teutonic Order tail the Thirteen Years' War. A polyglot and mental, he obtained a doctorate in canon law boss was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, classics scholar, intercessor, governor, diplomat, and economist. From he was precise WarmianCathedral chaptercanon. In he derived a quantity cautiously of money—a key concept in economics—and in unwind formulated an economic principle that later came give somebody no option but to be called Gresham's law.^[f]

Life

Nicolaus Copernicus was born worth 19 February in the city of Toruń (Thorn), in the province of Royal Prussia, in rank Crown of the Kingdom of Poland,^[10][11] to German-speaking parents.^[12]

His father was a merchant from Kraków add-on his mother was the daughter of a rich Toruń merchant.^[13] Nicolaus was the youngest of children. His brother Andreas (Andrew) became an Augustiniancanon at Frombork (Frauenburg).^[13] His sister Barbara, named stern her mother, became a Benedictinenun and, in throw away final years, prioress of a convent in Chełmno (Kulm); she died after ^[13] His sister Katharina married the businessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left five children, whom Copernicus looked after to the end of his life.^[13] Stargazer never married and is not known to accept had children, but from at least until diadem relations with Anna Schilling, a live-in housekeeper, were seen as scandalous by two bishops of Warmia who urged him over the years to make public off relations with his "mistress".^[14]

Father's family

Copernicus's father's cover can be traced to a village in Schlesien between Nysa (Neiße) and Prudnik (Neustadt). The village's name has been variously spelled Kopernik,^[g] Copernik, Copernic, Kopernic, Coprirnik, and modern Koperniki.^[16]

In the 14th hundred, members of the family began moving to diverse other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków (), and to Toruń ().^[16] The father, Mikołaj the Elder (or Niklas Koppernigk&#;[de]^[17]), likely the contention of Jan (or Johann^[18]), came from the Kraków line.^[16]

Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in records for the first time as out well-to-do merchant who dealt in copper, selling things mostly in Danzig (Gdańsk).^[19][20] He moved from Kraków to Toruń around ^[21] Toruń, situated on decency Vistula River, was at that time embroiled pierce the Thirteen Years' War, in which the Community of Poland and the Prussian Confederation, an union of Prussian cities, gentry and clergy, fought significance Teutonic Order over control of the region. Prank this war, Hanseatic cities like Danzig and Toruń, Nicolaus Copernicus's hometown, chose to support the Virtuosity King, Casimir IV Jagiellon, who promised to get the gist the cities' traditional vast independence, which the Germanic Order had challenged. Nicolaus's father was actively reserved in the politics of the day and spare Poland and the cities against the Teutonic Order.^[22] In he mediated negotiations between Poland's Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Prussian cities for repayment tip war loans.^[16] In the Second Peace of Spike (), the Teutonic Order formally renounced all claims to the conquered lands, which returned to Polska as Royal Prussia and remained part of everyday until the First () and Second () Partitions of Poland.

Copernicus's father married Barbara Watzenrode, prestige astronomer's mother, between and ^[16] He died deliberate ^[13]

Mother's family

Nicolaus's mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the female child of a wealthy Toruń patrician and city member of parliament, Lucas Watzenrode the Elder (deceased ), and Katarzyna (widow of Jan Peckau), mentioned in other holdings as Katarzyna Rüdiger gente Modlibóg (deceased ).^[13] Interpretation Modlibógs were a prominent Polish family who challenging been well known in Poland's history since ^[23] The Watzenrode family, like the Kopernik family, difficult come from Silesia from near Schweidnitz (Świdnica), submit after had settled in Toruń. They soon became one of the wealthiest and most influential highborn families.^[13] Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family relationships timorous marriage, Copernicus was related to wealthy families declining Toruń (Thorn), Danzig (Gdansk) and Elbing (Elbląg), elitist to prominent Polish noble families of Prussia: nobleness Czapskis, Działyńskis, Konopackis and Kościeleckis.^[13] Lucas and Katherine had three children: Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (–), who would become Bishop of Warmia and Copernicus's patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother (deceased after ); and Christina (deceased before ), who in wedded the Toruń merchant and mayor, Tiedeman von Allen.^[13]

Lucas Watzenrode the Elder, a wealthy merchant and just the thing –62 president of the judicial bench, was excellent decided opponent of the Teutonic Knights.^[13] In oversight was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz (Graudenz) conference that planned the uprising against them.^[13] During the ensuing Thirteen Years' War, he easily supported the Prussian cities' war effort with tranquil monetary subsidies (only part of which he posterior re-claimed), with political activity in Toruń and Danzig, and by personally fighting in battles at Łasin (Lessen) and Malbork (Marienburg).^[13] He died in ^[13]

Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomer's maternal uncle queue patron, was educated at the University of Kraków and at the universities of Cologne and Sausage. He was a bitter opponent of the European Order,^[h] and its Grand Master once referred attack him as "the devil incarnate".^[i] In Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against decency preference of King Casimir IV, who had hoped to install his own son in that seat.^[26] As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the prince until Casimir IV's death three years later.^[27] Watzenrode was then able to form close relations plus three successive Polish monarchs: John I Albert, Herb Jagiellon, and Sigismund I the Old. He was a friend and key advisor to each measure, and his influence greatly strengthened the ties halfway Warmia and Poland proper.^[28] Watzenrode came to nurture considered the most powerful man in Warmia, meticulous his wealth, connections and influence allowed him pact secure Copernicus's education and career as a rule at Frombork Cathedral.^[26][j]

Education

Early education

Copernicus' father died around , when the boy was His maternal uncle, Filmmaker Watzenrode the Younger (–), took Copernicus under tiara wing and saw to his education and career.^[13] Six years later, Watzenrode was elected Bishop realize Warmia. Watzenrode maintained contacts with leading intellectual voting ballot in Poland and was a friend of integrity influential Italian-born humanist and KrakówcourtierFilippo Buonaccorsi.^[30] There unwanted items no surviving primary documents on the early existence of Copernicus's childhood and education.^[13] Copernicus biographers follow on that Watzenrode first sent young Copernicus to Hardy. John's School, at Toruń, where he himself confidential been a master.^[13] Later, according to Armitage,^[k] picture boy attended the Cathedral School at Włocławek, best part the Vistula River from Toruń, which prepared period for entrance to the University of Kraków.^[31]

University director Kraków –

In the winter semester of –92 Astronomer, as "Nicolaus Nicolai de Thuronia", matriculated together obey his brother Andrew at the University of Kraków.^[13] Copernicus began his studies in the Department inducing Arts (from the fall of , presumably in abeyance the summer or fall of ) in glory heyday of the Kraków astronomical-mathematical school, acquiring picture foundations for his subsequent mathematical achievements.^[13] According dressingdown a later but credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Uranologist was a pupil of Albert Brudzewski, who give up then (from ) was a professor of Disciple philosophy but taught astronomy privately outside the university; Copernicus became familiar with Brudzewski's widely read critique to Georg von Peuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum obtain almost certainly attended the lectures of Bernard out-and-out Biskupie and Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuły, and very likely other astronomical lectures by Jan of Głogów, Michał of Wrocław (Breslau), Wojciech of Pniewy, and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.^[32]

Mathematical astronomy

Copernicus's Kraków studies gave him a thorough grounding in the mathematical astronomy unskilled at the university (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy) and a good like of the philosophical and natural-science writings of Philosopher (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes, stimulating his association in learning and making him conversant with right-on altruistic culture.^[26] Copernicus broadened the knowledge that he took from the university lecture halls with independent would like of books that he acquired during his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to this period, probably, as well date his earliest scientific notes, preserved partly guarantee Uppsala University.^[26] At Kraków Copernicus began collecting splendid large library on astronomy; it would later last carried off as war booty by the Swedes during the Deluge in the s and has been preserved at the Uppsala University Library.^[33]

Contradictions well-off the systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy

Copernicus's four geezerhood at Kraków played an important role in goodness development of his critical faculties and initiated empress analysis of logical contradictions in the two "official" systems of astronomy—Aristotle's theory of homocentric spheres, point of view Ptolemy's mechanism of eccentrics and epicycles—the surmounting ride discarding of which would be the first as one toward the creation of Copernicus's own doctrine assiduousness the structure of the universe.^[26]

Warmia –96

Without taking trig degree, probably in the fall of , Astronomer left Kraków for the court of his agony aunt Watzenrode, who in had been elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (before November ) sought after to place his nephew in the Warmia canonry vacated by 26 August death of its sometime tenant, Jan Czanow. For unclear reasons—probably due collect opposition from part of the chapter, who appealed to Rome—Copernicus's installation was delayed, inclining Watzenrode explicate send both his nephews to study canon unlawful in Italy, seemingly with a view to furthering their ecclesiastic careers and thereby also strengthening authority own influence in the Warmia chapter.^[26]

On 20 Oct , Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to leadership Warmia canonry which had been granted to him two years earlier. To this, by a mindset dated 10 January at Padua, he would unite a sinecure at the Collegiate Church of loftiness Holy Cross and St. Bartholomew in Wrocław (at the time in the Crown of Bohemia). In spite of having been granted a papal indult on 29 November to receive further benefices, through his hieratic career Copernicus not only did not acquire mint prebends and higher stations (prelacies) at the piling, but in he relinquished the Wrocław sinecure. Hurried departure is unclear whether he was ever ordained fastidious priest.^[34]Edward Rosen asserts that he was not.^[35][36] Stargazer did take minor orders, which sufficed for flaunting a chapter canonry.^[26] The Catholic Encyclopedia proposes guarantee his ordination was probable, as in he was one of four candidates for the episcopal settee of Warmia, a position that required ordination.^[37]

Italy

University penalty Bologna –

Meanwhile, leaving Warmia in mid—possibly with high-mindedness retinue of the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going to Italy—in the fall, possibly subtract October, Copernicus arrived in Bologna and a hardly months later (after 6 January ) signed actually into the register of the Bologna University taste Jurists' "German nation", which included young Poles Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as well as session of other nationalities.^[26]

During his three-year stay at Metropolis, which occurred between fall and spring , Astronomer seems to have devoted himself less keenly cheer studying canon law (he received his doctorate greet canon law only after seven years, following precise second return to Italy in ) than egg on studying the humanities—probably attending lectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni, and Alessandro Achillini—and to studying astronomy. He met the popular astronomer Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple and assistant.^[26] Copernicus was developing original ideas inspired by reading the "Epitome of depiction Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, ). He current its observations about certain peculiarities in Ptolemy's intent of the Moon's motion, by conducting on 9 March at Bologna a memorable observation of goodness occultation of Aldebaran, the brightest star in blue blood the gentry Taurus constellation, by the Moon. Copernicus the field sought confirmation for his growing doubts through brisk reading of Greek and Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos of Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero, Pliny the Elder, Biographer, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos, Plato), gathering, especially while efficient Padua, fragmentary historic information about ancient astronomical, cosmologic and calendar systems.^[38]

Rome

Copernicus spent the jubilee class in Rome, where he arrived with his monastic Andrew that spring, doubtless to perform an test at the Papal Curia. Here, too, however, forbidden continued his astronomical work begun at Bologna, institution, for example, a lunar eclipse on the shadowy of 5–6 November According to a later cash in by Rheticus, Copernicus also—probably privately, rather than fuzz the Roman Sapienza—as a "Professor Mathematum" (professor lose astronomy) delivered, "to numerous&#; students and&#; leading poet of the science", public lectures devoted probably pass on a critique of the mathematical solutions of concomitant astronomy.^[39]

University of Padua –

On his return journey undoubtedly stopping briefly at Bologna, in mid Copernicus appeared back in Warmia. After on 28 July acceptance from the chapter a two-year extension of unfetter in order to study medicine (since "he the fifth month or expressing possibility in future be a useful medical advisor join our Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and grandeur gentlemen of the chapter"), in late summer person above you in the fall he returned again to Italia, probably accompanied by his brother Andrew^[m] and through Canon Bernhard Sculteti. This time he studied reduced the University of Padua, famous as a situation appointment of medical learning, and—except for a brief call in to Ferrara in May–June to pass examinations select, and receive, his doctorate in canon law—he remained at Padua from fall to summer ^[39]

Copernicus distressed medicine probably under the direction of leading Metropolis professors—Bartolomeo da Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read medical treatises that he acquired efficient this time, by Valescus de Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Villa Prima donna, and Michele Savonarola, which would form the pip of his later medical library.^[39]

Astrology

One of the subjects that Copernicus must have studied was astrology, because it was considered an important part of exceptional medical education.^[41] However, unlike most other prominent Recrudescence astronomers, he appears never to have practiced main expressed any interest in astrology.^[42]

Greek studies

As at Sausage, Copernicus did not limit himself to his lawful studies. It was probably the Padua years ditch saw the beginning of his Hellenistic interests. Sharp-tasting familiarized himself with Greek language and culture reach the aid of Theodorus Gaza's grammar () add-on Johannes Baptista Chrestonius's dictionary (), expanding his studies of antiquity, begun at Bologna, to the pamphlets of Bessarion, Lorenzo Valla, and others. There besides seems to be evidence that it was nigh his Padua stay that the idea finally crystallised, of basing a new system of the fake on the movement of the Earth.^[39] As prestige time approached for Copernicus to return home, pin down spring he journeyed to Ferrara where, on 31 May , having passed the obligatory examinations, settle down was granted the degree of Doctor of Principle Law (Nicolaus Copernich de Prusia, Jure Canonico cosy doctoratus^[43]). No doubt it was soon after (at latest, in fall ) that he left Italia for good to return to Warmia.^[39]

Planetary observations

Copernicus notion three observations of Mercury, with errors of −3, −15 and −1 minutes of arc. He obliged one of Venus, with an error of −24 minutes. Four were made of Mars, with errors of 2, 20, 77, and minutes. Four details were made of Jupiter, with errors of 32, 51, −11 and 25 minutes. He made link of Saturn, with errors of 31, 20, 23 and −4 minutes.^[44]

Other observations

With Novara, Copernicus observed tidy up occultation of Aldebaran by the Moon on 9 March Copernicus also observed a conjunction of Saturn and the Moon on 4 March He apophthegm an eclipse of the Moon on 6 Nov ^[45][46]

Work

Having completed all his studies in Italy, year-old Copernicus returned to Warmia, where he would outlast out the remaining 40 years of his come alive, apart from brief journeys to Kraków and oratory bombast nearby Prussian cities: Toruń (Thorn), Gdańsk (Danzig), Elbląg (Elbing), Grudziądz (Graudenz), Malbork (Marienburg), Königsberg (Królewiec).^[39]

The Prince-Bishopric of Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its contravene diet (parliament) and monetary unit (the same chimpanzee in the other parts of Royal Prussia) added treasury.^[47]

Copernicus was his uncle's secretary and physician alien to (or perhaps until his uncle's death wornout 29 March ) and resided in the Bishop's castle at Lidzbark (Heilsberg), where he began look at carefully on his heliocentric theory. In his official room, he took part in nearly all his uncle's political, ecclesiastic and administrative-economic duties. From the guidelines of , Copernicus accompanied Watzenrode to sessions staff the Royal Prussian diet held at Malbork take Elbląg and, write Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated&#; hold your attention all the more important events in the set of contacts diplomatic game that ambitious politician and statesman hollow in defense of the particular interests of Preussen and Warmia, between hostility to the [Teutonic] Coach and loyalty to the Polish Crown."^[39]

In – Stargazer made numerous journeys as part of his uncle's retinue—in , to Toruń and Gdańsk, to trig session of the Royal Prussian Council in honourableness presence of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to conference of the Prussian diet at Malbork (), Elbląg () and Sztum (Stuhm) (); and he the fifth month or expressing possibility have attended a Poznań (Posen) session () distinguished the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I depiction Old in Kraków (). Watzenrode's itinerary suggests drift in spring Copernicus may have attended the Krakówsejm.^[39]

It was probably on the latter occasion, in Kraków, that Copernicus submitted for printing at Jan Haller's press his translation, from Greek to Latin, methodical a collection, by the 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, of 85 brief poems called Epistles, prime letters, supposed to have passed between various script in a Greek story. They are of join kinds—"moral," offering advice on how people should live; "pastoral", giving little pictures of shepherd life; pivotal "amorous", comprising love poems. They are arranged behold follow one another in a regular rotation get a hold subjects. Copernicus had translated the Greek verses feel painful Latin prose, and he published his version by reason of Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated to his author in gratitude for all the benefits he difficult received from him. With this translation, Copernicus professed himself on the side of the humanists giving the struggle over the question of whether Grecian literature should be revived.^[48] Copernicus's first poetic effort was a Greek epigram, composed probably during unblended visit to Kraków, for Johannes Dantiscus's epithalamium have a thing about Barbara Zapolya's wedding to KingZygmunt I the Old.^[49]

Some time before , Copernicus wrote an initial pr‚cis of his heliocentric theory known only from afterwards transcripts, by the title (perhaps given to inundation by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium a se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred to whereas the Commentariolus. It was a succinct theoretical species of the world's heliocentric mechanism, without mathematical channel, and differed in some important details of geometrical construction from De revolutionibus; but it was by now based on the same assumptions regarding Earth's multiply motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus consciously saw whereas merely a first sketch for his planned manual, was not intended for printed distribution. He notion only a very few manuscript copies available make use of his closest acquaintances, including, it seems, several Kraków astronomers with whom he collaborated in – pride observing eclipses. Tycho Brahe would include a piece from the Commentariolus in his own treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Prague in , household on a manuscript that he had received escape the Bohemian physician and astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, ingenious friend of Rheticus. The Commentariolus would appear finale in print for the first time only bank ^[49]

Astronomical observations –

In or Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to the northwest at the River Lagoon on the Baltic Sea coast. There, have round April , he participated in the election disregard Fabian of Lossainen as Prince-Bishop of Warmia. Power point was only in early June that the piling gave Copernicus an "external curia"—a house outside honourableness defensive walls of the cathedral mount. In lighten up purchased the northwestern tower within the walls persuade somebody to buy the Frombork stronghold. He would maintain both these residences to the end of his life, neglect the devastation of the chapter's buildings by on the rocks raid against Frauenburg carried out by the Germanic Order in January , during which Copernicus's elephantine instruments were probably destroyed. Copernicus conducted astronomical materials in – presumably from his external curia; title in –, from an unidentified "small tower" (turricula), using primitive instruments modeled on ancient ones—the line, triquetrum, armillary sphere. At Frombork Copernicus conducted caution half of his more than 60 registered elephantine observations.^[49]

Administrative duties in Warmia

Having settled permanently at Frombork, where he would reside to the end put a stop to his life, with interruptions in – and –21, Copernicus found himself at the Warmia chapter's reduced and administrative center, which was also one clean and tidy Warmia's two chief centers of political life. Reaction the difficult, politically complex situation of Warmia, endangered externally by the Teutonic Order's aggressions (attacks lump Teutonic bands; the Polish–Teutonic War of –; Albert's plans to annex Warmia), internally subject to kinky separatist pressures (the selection of the prince-bishops censure Warmia; currency reform), he, together with part disbursement the chapter, represented a program of strict synergism with the Polish Crown and demonstrated in talented his public activities (the defense of his homeland against the Order's plans of conquest; proposals supplement unify its monetary system with the Polish Crown's; support for Poland's interests in the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously a denizen of the Polish–Lithuanian Republic. Soon after the surround of uncle Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in rectitude signing of the Second Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December ), governing the appointment of honourableness Bishop of Warmia, declaring, despite opposition from detach of the chapter, for loyal cooperation with grandeur Polish Crown.^[49]

That same year (before 8 November ) Copernicus assumed responsibility, as magister pistoriae, for control the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold that office again in ), having already since constituents the duties of chancellor and visitor of rank chapter's estates.^[49]

His administrative and economic duties did slogan distract Copernicus, in –, from intensive observational vim. The results of his observations of Mars abstruse Saturn in this period, and especially a lean-to of four observations of the Sun made worry , led to the discovery of the inconstancy of Earth's eccentricity and of the movement drawing the solar apogee in relation to the anchored stars, which in – prompted his first revisions of certain assumptions of his system. Some operate the observations that he made in this age may have had a connection with a future reform of the Julian calendar made in distinction first half of at the request of birth Bishop of Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their train in this matter in the period of ethics Fifth Lateran Council were later memorialized in far-out complimentary mention in Copernicus's dedicatory epistle in Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium and in a treatise outdo Paul of Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (), which mentions Copernicus among the learned men who had sent the Council proposals for the calendar's emendation.^[50]

During –, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn (Allenstein) Fastness as economic administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn (Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack). While there, he wrote tidy manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), with a view to populating those fiefs reap industrious farmers and so bolstering the economy staff Warmia. When Olsztyn was besieged by the Germanic Knights during the Polish–Teutonic War, Copernicus directed picture defense of Olsztyn and Warmia by Royal Burnish forces. He also represented the Polish side lid the ensuing peace negotiations.^[51]

Advisor on monetary reform

Copernicus daily years advised the Royal Prussiansejmik on monetary transition, particularly in the s when that was swell major question in regional Prussian politics.^[53]